Characteristics Of A Community Worker

Characteristics Of A Community WorkerIntroductionHuman beings make water been engaged with a series of occupations from hunting to what we atomic number 18 today. As societies and communities began to represent, several actions were done simply to tackle a common problem or to spread aw atomic number 18ness resulting to what we call today as voluntary massage. un stipendiary work when it relates to the leases of a fraternity, it is referred to as voluntary confederation work. The passe-partout and voluntary residential district role players argon 2 motivated by the incessant need to contri unlesse positively to the companionship.Both types of familiarity work include doing some sort of work that benefits the community. This could be anything from victorious c ar of the great unwashed in antiquated grievous deals homes, to on the job(p) for the children and their families. Community service comes in many different forms, such as belonging to a service organization , making donations to the needy, spending your clipping modify towards the betterment of the society. Some community workers may be called upon to perform admir adequate actions ilk saving pluralitys lives, however there are smaller ways that an item-by-item burn help his community. (Standard Journal)Professional community service relates to everything that is done for the community for money and for acquiring skills and acknowledge. Professional and voluntary work, are different ways of doing community service. The voluntary service is based on self motivation and the urge to improve the community with stunned any selfish reasons while the major motivator of a professional community worker is his earnings. Today the two ways are being combined. Most individuals and companies nowadays actively tackle social issues while taking advantage of personal profit and recognition within the industry. Community ServiceCommunity service is about helping differents either directly o r indirectly in order to improve the correspond of the community in which we are living. Community service is different from other institutions as it deals with local problems rather than orbicular problems at large. Community service is based on the idea that it is a good thing someone is doing without expecting anything in return. The real beauty of serving your community is that you get to help others, and in the end, it helps you in addition to have a better community with happy people and a safer environment. on that point are many reasons people do community service and there are many different ways in which to contribute, but the main idea is to make the world a better place to live. (communityserviceopportunities.php)There are various reasons why people engage in community service, some are voluntary and some are non voluntary. Some people like to do community service because they feel that it is the best way to improve their community. There is always somebody for whom your help and clock time can be necessary this is good reason to work at giving back to the community. Many persons view community service as an all- master(prenominal)(prenominal) aspect of citizenship or values, while others do it because of their religion. Yet there are people who engage in community service in order to sate requirements for certain company, as a need to graduate from an institutions, or even as a mandatory legal penalisement pass aroundn by settle instead of or in addition to jail time or fines. The concept behind this is that the law can find a way to punish criminals or offenders at the advantage of the community and giving law breakers a reminder about what it means to be a good citizen. (communityserviceopportunities.php) disregardless of the reasons to be a community worker, it is essential to remember that community service itself takes on many forms from cleaning the road monthly to helping children in poverty. There are many ways to make the commun ity a nice place to live. Prevalent forms of community service are beautification efforts such as plectron up garbage or ameliorating landscaping work, while many others are foc employ on education or eudaimonia of children where community workers can improve writing skills of children of making a safe place for them when their parents are away from home.Characteristics of a community workerThe community worker moldiness be trained and knowledgeable but this is non all. The persons who need to investigate and assist communities must know and understand themselves. Before one can evaluate what is misadventure with others, community workers must be centered and above reproach in their own life. The worker must be aware of the code of ethics associated with the caper he is doing. Their ability and commitment to act ethically is an essential aspect of the quality of the service offered to those who use community services. (National Code of Ethics, 2012)A community worker needs to b e able to put aside his biases and deal with others in a logical and professional. If someone is honest with himself, if he knows his lacking, see his capacities, and is aware or his personal beliefs, he depart be to a greater extent likely capable of putting them on one side to tackle others justly and no prejudices. It is serious to discuss with a family member who raped his biological daughter of 13 years old like in Mauritius in 2011. (Le Defi, 2011) But, if you are a community worker, you need to have good relationships with that abuser in order to develop trust and ease healing. A community worker must remain so-so(p) and collect facts.A community worker needs to have active listening skills, not to formulate an answer, but hear what is being said. From this data, the worker needs to make quick decisions in difficult situations. Not listening actively may cause unnecessary pain to people who are involved. Each family feels that they are the only one to have come across a t ragic experience however there are many things in common that exist in most of the cases. (Fairbairn, G.J. 2002)The community worker needs to learn how to make stress. Stress is one of the main causes of heart attacks. The worker needs to know how to remove stress from his life for instance by doing meditation or physical exercises. Dealing with other peoples issues is difficult if you have feelings. The quote is, God does not give anyone more than they can handle, but community workers handle problems that cannot be discussed with other people apart if the case is really complicated like the person wants to price himself or someone else.To become a successful community worker, one needs to developl maturity as well as experience. One of the most important skills for a community worker is to be able to empathize. Community workers must go beyond sympathy. To succeed as a community worker, one must feel true empathy for people and be able to place yourself in another persons positi on. (Fairbairn, G.J. 2002)Voluntary community workersVoluntary community workers work on a salary free basis. They perform actions that benefit the community. They dont get money for the work they do. Furthermore, they are not requisite to be restricted to perform voluntary community work they just need to be motivated to do good for the community. Voluntary community work is a group of people or a person who is wants to work for the eudaemonia of the community without being paid. They are helping out other needy neighbors without taking any money for it. These workers should not require money for their contribution. They should work sincerely with dedication. Being voluntary workers, they should not think that they do not need to put all their effort in what they are doing as they will not get any revenue.Professional community workerProfessional community workers are required to be trained and qualified for the work they do, such as a doctor or a manager. Professional community workers get a salary like any other employees. Professional community work is most often done by organizations for money. They get money for whatever they are doing. These workers should perform their work loyally but also expect to get paid for it. They work for the community while being paid and have all the requirements necessary to be able to work towards the betterment of the (community. (Community Dev J.1980)Service deliveryService delivery can be defined as the relationship between the community worker and the inhabitants of the community, and those who benefit from the services, it comprises of both the services and the support housed.Community based approachesCommunity based approaches is defined as a group of approaches, put into practice in community-level programs or as part of local programs. Amount of involvement differ along set of factors from consultation with inhabitants to use of resources, decision making and implementation of the program in the community. part icipatory approaches have existed since many years but the amplitude of beneficiary control in development projects differs considerably. (Cliffe et al., 2003)Community-based approaches are becoming very common and are used in many situations in the presence or absence of a capable government. Community-based approaches can be adopted in places where regular help is not available. Advocates of community-based approaches submit that their built in adjustability makes it easy to interfere in places where the government is fragile, however those against say that in practice they often miss to be established, or attenuate. (Cliffe et al., 2003)Objectives of community-based approachesJust like service delivery, a set of objectives are associated with community based approaches.Four types of objectives will be discusses further empowerment, building organizational capacity, upward(a) efficiency, effectiveness and sustainability and change local government.Empowerment of people and comm unitiesCommunity-based projects have the capacity to be more encompassing, to empower communities, and enhance relationships between civil society and the state (Narayan, 1998 Alkire et al, 2004). Some have doubts on whether complicated things such as empowerment can be tackled through participation in community development projects (Mosse, 2001). sometimes it is viewed as a way to ameliorate problems while in other situations it is seen as a factor having a built in value and is a limitation in itself.Improve efficiency, effectiveness and sustainability of interventionsThere is large consensus that community-based interventions have the capacity to be more acknowledging to the necessities and aims of inhabitants. Furthermore, there are proof that community-based projects are more productive due to lower degree of bureaucracy and excelling information of local costs (McLeod, 2003) .The projects that include mostly resources available locally tend to be more sustainable. (Ribot, 1995 ).Build organizational capacity at local levelMobilization of communities determines difficulties, plan and manage projects help to empower community ability for group process. earthshaking questions encompass the term community and the ways in which the necessities of sub-groups and people are depicted, for instance black or poor people. Community-based approaches try to establish social groovy but while this is a beneficial idea it is most of the time put into practice uncritically with improper understanding of cultural and political condition and vested concern in the status quo (Harris, 2001).Strengthen local governanceCommunity-driven progress is more and more being advanced as a way of strengthening state-community synergies (Das Gupta et al., 2004). These approaches capacitate communities to order services and provide a means for rebuilding trust and accountability and re-building the social contract between communities and the state. The aims of making more potent local government and distributing improved services are often confused. Strength to meet short term goods targets often divert the mind from organizational changes required to make service delivery systems sustainable in the long run.Service delivery of a voluntary community workerPeople have sometimes worked with the idea of wanting to find some way to give back to their community, and help those who cannot help themselves. Some can volunteer and simply talk to people so that they have a good day and making them happy. Others may to hospitals and help the old people, having conversations and listening to them, thus acquiring maturity. These individuals are most of the time more than grateful to have a talk with someone and being listened to. Similarly, volunteers are also able to help children by doing activities like drawing with them. Volunteers are satisfied with the happiness of the people whom the help. (Helping others is good for you, 1998)By volunteering and doing community servic e, many people get a maturity that they cannot get anywhere else. Volunteers are prone the chance to see life from different perspectives, and gain a lot of humility at the end. . (Helping others is good for you, 1998)When volunteering, these people are able to give as much of their time as they want, the commitment becomes theirs. They have no problem in getting involved with the work as it is being done out of their freewill. By doing community work voluntarily, an individual not only makes a difference in his life but also in all the lives of people who will benefit from his service. (Billig S.H. 2002)Those who engage in voluntary community service are motivated by a personal force, they are happy if they are able to make a difference in somebodys life and do not expect anything in return. Volunteers are altruist by nature that is they like to help people without any interest they have compassion for those who need help.When doing community service voluntarily, the volunteer wil l not care about quantify if he really wants to help the other person he will not have to respect the organizations working hours to help someone. When working for an organization, the workers will have to abide by the rules and regulations assigned, if they want to help someone they will have to do so only during working hours. (Billig S.H. 2002)Service delivery of a paid community workerTo be able to work for an organization and being remunerated, the community worker must be trained, that is he will possess the skills, experience and will understand the importance of the codes of ethics. Thus he will be in a better position to take rapid and effective decisions for the welfare or the community. To get the job, the individual have the necessary qualifications and fulfill the organizations requirements to be considered worthy thus he will b at a good position to take wise and good decisions. (Learning In Deed, 2005)Being a professional worker, the person will have all the resource s necessary to be able to help the needy he will furthermore be able to use all the resources effectively without giving too much or too little. Also the worker will have a good database, the contact details of all the persons who can be of any help. The company will provide back up to the worker in case of accident, he will be covered by insurance unlike voluntary community workers. (Learning In Deed, 2005)Working in an organization only as a means to get a salary can also be problematic as the community workers main objective will not be to help people in the community but rather to earn money. The worker will not have the same motivation to do something good for others as he will anyway get his salary at the end of the month.When working with the elderly and children, the community worker might not feel happy and might also not make an effort to put a grimace on other peoples face. His prime objective will not be to make others happy, the worker will not be satisfied by see the neighborhood happy unlike with voluntary community worker.The community worker does his work only as a means to get a salary will have no interest to help people or to work for the betterment of the community. If he encounters a case outside his working hours he will not try to help the people needing help as he will not consider it as part of his work. As curtly as his working hours are over he will find it of no use to work for this community. (Learning In Deed, 2005)Critical AnalysisIt is true that while engaging in community service out of free will the individual will feel happy to be able to contribute for the welfare of the community, however the voluntary community worker will face time constraints, he may be doing the work voluntarily as he is not able to do it on a full time basis as he has already some other engagements. Furthermore voluntary community workers will not have enough resources to help those who need help, for instance building a place for children to spend their leisure time when parents are off require a lot of resources which unpaid workers might not possess. They will also lack the skills that are needed in difficult situations like transaction with delinquent children they may take the wrong decisions unconsciously and are guided by their emotions instead of being logical. On the other hand, paid community workers may possess the required qualifications, skills, experience, resources and database but if their only motivation is their salary, they will not make any effort to solve the problems of the people in the community.ConclusionHence, as we can see both voluntary and paid community works have their advantages and disadvantages. The best thing that can be done is to merge the two so as to be able to really benefit the community. By merge the two types, the worker will have the resources to help improve the locality, he will be able to take the right decisions with all the skills, qualifications and by respecting the codes o f ethics, have time to handle the cases, and he will have a brain of worthiness helping the neighborhood moreover in return he will get a salary to be able to cater for his expenses. The community worker should not however work only as a way to get a salary. The government can empower both professional and voluntary social workers in terms of resources, access to information and technology and provide training, so that they can do their work more efficiently. By merging voluntary and professional community work, not only will the community benefit but the worker will also gain maturity.

Bolman And Deals Four Framework Approach

Bolman And Deals Four mannikin ApproachLeadership was once about wicked skills such as intend, finance and business analysis. When command and control ruled the corporate world, the attractors were heroic intellectualists who moved people around uniform pawns and fought like stags. When they spoke, the company employees jumped. The entire c arer system in some organizations is based on using hard functional skills to progress. But when executives r to each unrivaled the top of the organization, umteen different skills are required.Corporate leaders whitethorn find that although they can do the financial analysis and the strategical planning, they are poor at communicating ideas to employees or colleagues, or have little insight into how to motivate people. The modern CEO requires an array of skills.Some suggest that people expect too untold of leaders. Indeed, renaissance men and women are rare. Leadership in a modern organization is highly complex and it is increasingly difficult. It is sometimes im accomplishable for finding solely the necessary traits in a single person. Among the virtually crucial skills is the ability to capture audiences.Richard Branson, the funder of advanced Group and Virgin Atlantic Airline could be adept of best leader in the indus smack.BiographyAccording to Virgin throng website, Richard Branson was born in July 18, 1950 in Surrey, England. He is the son of a lawyer and an airway stewardess. He was educated at the exclusive Stowe School, and did non excel, possibly due to his nearsightedness and dyslexia. In his teens he developed a national magazine, pupil at the Age of Sixteen. At seventeen he began a student advisory service.After leaving school, Branson entered the music industry. Considering that he could sell records cheaper than the existing average, he started a mail-order catalogue with friends. It was a success, and they opened a record discount shop. They named the business Virgin, because it was the ir first base venture.Virgin Airlines is one of Bransons briny businesses. Formed in 1984, it is type owned by capital of Sin initiativeore Airlines, and it is the second largest British long haul international air hose, and has won many awards. During the 1990s the fleet and the air route electronic network expanded and a Premium Economy service was introduced. In 2003 Virgin Atlantic launched the advance(a) Upper Class Suite with a flat bop and seat, and in 2006 the Virgin Clubhouse opened at Heathrow with a spa, brasserie, cocktail bar, hair salon and games room. Branson is similarly well known for his personal adventures by Virgin Atlantic Flyer.In 2010, and less than 40 years after the original conception of the Branson Virgin businesses, Branson boasted over 200 Virgin Megastores worldwide. All told, Branson employed 24,000 employees in cl companies, with revenues totaling an estimated five billion dollars each year from the entire Virgin Group including the music store s and airline. The Virgin empire was is the largest privately owned business in England (Virgin Atlantic Airways, 2010).Bolman and Deals Four Framework Approach to Richard BransonLeadership models can to a fault befriend us to understand a leaders organizational set. Bolman and Deal, in Four Framework Approach, suggest that leaders display behaviors in one of four frameworks morphological, sympathetic Resource, Political, or Symbolic. Each requires a specific organizational setting to be successful.The Structural FrameworkFrom the rational perspective, organizations are instruments intentional to achieve specified goals. Organizations are purposeful in the sense that the activities and interactions of participants are centr totallyy coordinated to achieve reciprocal documentals behaviors in organizations are rational in the sense that roles and role traffic are prescribed independently of the personal attributes of the individuals in the structure (Richard, 1992). In the rat ional domain, organizations are driven by strategies, and the role of management is to align strategies and structure with the external environment.Strategy development includes two kinds of firees mainly. The first one is prescriptive approach which is the firm defined the objective and/or the main elements before brainstorm the schema vice versa, another one is have no clear objective and/or elements, all the strategy go forth be developing during the process, which call emergent approach. Finally, what people and task performed base on above approaches that will bring forth the strategic change by formal or informal organizational structure from the managers, because of environment, business relationship, technology, people, life cycle, semipolitical power, etc (Tichy, 1983). The importance of strategic change is that may occur considerable disruption, but this practice is also useful to analysis the specific causes for planning the best direction on Bransons management chan ge.Bransons Corporate direct StrategyDiversification The core business of Virgin Group is travel, but since early 1990, it has begun to involve in many other different businesses, such businesses are no directly or substantial relationships amidst each other. Such businesses include mass media, entertainment, beverage, finance, weight industries and more, all these small business units (SBUs) enriched the Virgins portfolio.Brand character reference Branson built its red brand to represent value for notes, woodland, fun, innovation, success and trust. This idea is developed and applied on its whole range of businesses.Joint-Venture In the flight service, each airline have to trance the permission for access paths by during with local governments, this process is very complicated and consume a lot of resources in harm of human, money and time. Joint-venture is the method that can be easy to get this permission, also could be easy to meet the economic of scale to reduce cost, an d share or lower the risk.Bransons SBUs Level StrategyDifferentiation Branson provides the offer which other firms no. The very common simulation is, Virgin Atlantics souvenirs are always different and united. other one congresswoman is Virgin Atlantic keeps its rubber eraser record is zero accident, to growing the confidence to its passengers, or customers though its air ticket is expensive and then others in generally.The Human Resource FrameworkAlthough people are intentionally rational, not all human behavior is the result of rationality. People do not leave their emotions and feelings at home when they come to work in the morning, and noneconomic objectives are pursued alongside economic objectives (Powell, 1999). In the human domain, the central issue is how to commix human needs with organizational rationality.Virgin Group considers peoples as the grand assets, so it pays attention on peoples motivation, culture and even the individual desires to manage and respect p eoples work well and comfortable. Branson also thinks staff first, then customers and shareholders, therefore the chairperson, staff, customers and shareholders could be considered as the key stakeholders.Chairperson ShareholdersBranson is as a leader in Virgin which has used the corporate brand name across its entire product, the whole Virgin Group is influenced by him, and he is the hugeer single asset in the group (Ensor Drummond, 2001). Meanwhile, Branson is one of the shareholder of Virgin Group companies, so as same as other shareholder, his values will be added into the group and will be implemented in stretchning the business. Bransons values are innocence, innovation, quality, fun and irreverence of authority, all of such values could be found in his choices of new-sprung(prenominal) ventures.InvestorThe investors mainly focus on the profit and the return of investment (ROI). This issue makes the conflict between investor and customers, because customers want to have wagerer services that will attach the cost and decrease the maximization level of the profitStaffThe skills, knowledge and suggestions of the staff are important to the company, Branson also understand this point so that he wants his best people will stay in his company for venturing (Grant, 2003).Example Julie Bower, Virgin Atlantic Project Manager, response to source alternative customer relations management (CRM) software, then experienced partially customized system with Virgin Atlantics own data. Finally, Saratoga System has been chosen as the provider of CRM system (Thomson Corporation Company, 2005). This example shows the valuable staff will affect the strategic development.CustomersThe best products or services are always seeking by customer, in order words, firms are required to provide best product or service for maintaining current customers and exploring new customers. Companies that survive profitably in a competitive environment must be providing value for money (Jo hnson et al, 2005). Therefore, customers also influence the strategies of the company.Our first time with Virgin Atlantic, and out last Chaotic queue at LHR took three hours to kitchen range check in desk. The cabin crews were arrogant and more interested in putting on more make up than serving passengers. Virgin relies on their record from the eighties, but they have lost it big time. Want to travel and enjoy the experience avoid Virgin at all costs (Skytrax, 2008).This example not exclusively explains how customers influence the strategy development, also explains to provide the certain products to customer can reduce the probability of finical loss.The Political FrameworkFrom the political perspective, organizations are coalitions of diverse individuals and groups with enduring differences in values and preferences. They are governed not by a single center, as is assumed in the rational perspective, but by a dominant coalition of interest groups. As such, organizations often operate with unresolved conflicts in goals (March Shapiro, 1992). From the human domain perspective, malfunctions arise from structural misalignment or from personal deficiency while from the political perspective, divergent interests and resource scarcity inevitably turn organizations political.GovernmentThe core business of Virgin Group is charm service, and this business is highly regulated by the government. In the result, government policy is very import to the Branson and company as well, like policy on safety, route, licence etc. These factors are about the change in government or government policy. The airline industry in UK has been privatized already, this action is initiated by UK Government. Branson got the opportunity to run the airline services from this political change to be a franchisee. Branson entered the markets or industries that have large, well established competitors, for instance, David is one of his favorite roles who against Goliaths, it is the example that the corporate against a big business. Now, the airline industry is run by two parts, Virgin Atlantic and British airways, provide flight and airline services respectively. Moreover, British Airways is the main competitor for Virgin Atlantic that leaded Virgin Atlantic always played the underdog role in competing with British Airways. Though Virgin Atlantic and British Airways had been role as underdog and bully respectively, in 1992, Virgin Atlantic had been success to claim one and half million dollars from British Airways (Aker, 2005 Grant, 2003).The Symbolic Framework symbol plays a critical role in human experience. In the rational domain, the point of life is choice. However, organizational life is only partly concerned with making decisions (March Shapiro 1992). Decision making is often an arena for symbolic actions. Many events and processes are more important for what is expressed than for what is produced (Bolman Deal, 2008). The leaders use symbols to capture atten tion they try to frame experience by providing plausible interpretations of experiences they discover and communicate a vision.InnovationBranson understands the new matters could attack the new customers and maintain the current customers, but its competitors also understand this simple theory. Therefore Virgin Atlantic based on the existed offers with new concepts or packages as a new products or services to get the competitive advantage in the industry.These factors are about the application of new inventors or ideas. The technology in air applies to the development of safe airplane, or current engine. Virgin Atlantic is the pioneer in this area, Branson introduced the Rolls-Royce Trent 700 engines to power its new Airbus fleet of 10 A330-300s has triggered a big switch from polution to green eco-friendly travel on the route. The Trent 700 is the first engine in the highly successful Trent family. The 72,000lb thrust engine has lower maintenance costs, lower weight and better per formance retention. With the utmost lifecycle fuel burn, lowest cumulative emissions and lowest noise levels the Trent 700 has the lowest environmental impact of any engine on the A330 (TravelDailyNews, 2009). Branson reduces the time taken for long distance travel and efficacy in helping to customers.Except the improvement on speed, Branson also increased number of channels for passenger to buy tickets by web and machine. The software was designed to link customer details, flight information and limo service details together and provides Virgin Atlantic staff with accurate information and tools to efficiently and in effect manage the Upper Class Wing operation (Journalism UK, 2008).Virgin Atlantic has got the opportunity to operate the UK and World air service by the government policy. The rhythmic pattern perhaps people will be willing to expand more on the travelling. The change of working place also affects the demand on all the modes of transport. The new channels have been developed through the web and new machine system. The market still has space to operate obviously, but the most important consideration of a transport services provider is safety. So the most strength of Branson and Virgin Atlantic has been improving its reputation especially in safety and on-time to get confidence of passengers.Comparison of Richard Bransons corporate strategy decisionIn the stage of setting up the strategies, Branson definitely understand the strategies of which are the ways in which strategy develops in organization.Bransons Virgin Atlantic Airline Strategic DevelopmentCommand View and Culture View are highlighted by Virgin AtlanticThe culture view is that it occurs as the outcome of the taken-for-granted assumptions and behaviors in organizations.(Johnson et al, 2005)Branson founded Virgin Atlantic in 1984 in fact, Virgin Atlantics success highly depends on the founders dominions to provide the highest quality innovative service at excellent value for money for all classes of air travelers. This principle created and established the culture of Virgin Atlantic, because all Virgin companies also maintain an entrepreneurial culture based on Bransons principle. There are four strategic developments have been found out and will be advertize described in followingStrategy One DifferentiationBranson also has another philosophy in his principle which is to be a pioneer kind of then a follower of the leader. In order to reach this point, Virgin Atlantic must offer highest quality innovative service for its air travelers. Its innovative actions include1986, the 1st airline provided sleeper seats in upper class1990, the 1st airline brought in the automatic defibrillators, trained the staff to help in-flight cardiac arrest victimsThe 1st airline installed individual TVs to all classes of passenger on the wide-bodied aircraft2005, won the RFID Breakthrough Integration Award since it is as a leader in RFID 2005Virgin Atlantic applied RFID tag on the important parts that used in aircraft maintenance and repairs at Heathrow Airport warehouse, UK. The technological progression is always the advantage taking for Virgin and the customers, said by Mark Butler, System Implementation Manager, Engineering Department, Virgin Atlantic (Tata Consultancy Services Limited, 2007).Strategy ii Jointing AllianceVirgin Atlantic has jointed an alliance with many airlines until 2006 that providing better choice on where and when for its customers flights, the member of that alliance includes Singapore Airline, Bmi British Midland, Continental Airline, southern African Airways, US Airways, Virgin Blue and Air China. All above airlines also signed Codeshare Agreement, so the connections between partners services become closer, customers could enjoy better service and value, such as checking customers and their luggage over to their final destination and synchronizing their schedules with Virgin Atlantics partners. Turn out the customers of Virgin Atlantic could enjoy the shortest possible connections between their services (Virgin Atlantic Airways, 2010).The crises of 11th September, 2001 that affected the worldwide economy, Virgin Atlantic also got heavy losses in financial aspect. The alliance strategy was significantly assisted the recovery, because it reduced the investment and the accompanying inflexibility and risk during the uncertainties of operating in other countries (Aaker, 2005).Strategy Three PartnershipIn 1999, Singapore Airline acquired 49% Virgin Atlantic stake that can reinforce to provide the highest quality innovative service at excellent value for money for all classes of air travellers. Singapore Airline is a unique global partner, this is a perfect collaboration since both two airlines have an incomparable reputation for quality and innovation, and have own numerous awards from the travel industry. According to the terms of the dealing, both two airlines routes will not overlap each other and are uniqu ely complementary, also they keep independent managements, and the rights to develop their own products. This partnership action generated greater benefits to both companies passengers, such as fare, access to lounges world-wide and an increasingly seamless travel experience across their airlines network (Virgin Atlantic Airways, 2010).japan Airline Strategic DevelopmentIn terms of strategic management, the major contrast between Virgin Atlantic and Japan Airline is, Japan Airline is the one managed by traditional state-run or government hierarchy, so its companies strategy was established by country leader and the board, as same as or followed by the strategy of government, often the goal or the result is extremely unrealistic to the commercial. The gap occurs in between the top management board and the tactical managers which more strengthen the difficulties in implementation and lessen the competitiveness in international airline market. Moreover, Virgin Atlantic emphasizes on c ommand view and culture view in this session, Japan Airline emphasizes on planning view to develop its strategies.In the planning view, strategic planning is to use a formal planning system for the development and implementation of the strategies related to mission and objectives of the organization.(Lynch, 2000)Japan Airlines BackgroundJapan Airline is a joint-venture company which was founded by one governmental company and two private companies, Japan Airline Company, Philippine Airlines and Northwest Airlines in 1951. Japanese Government bought the share from Northwest Airlines that leaded to Japan Airline totally transfer to Japanese Government. Nowadays, all decisions are made by the Board of Directors and their strategic development is mainly focused on strategic planning (Fundinguniverse, 2010).Japan Airlines Planning ProcedureOne of the Japan Airlines department, Corporate Planning Information technology Services is established in Japan Airline for responsible to suggest strategies for Japan Airline. After the seminar in 1987, this department suggested five corporate strategies for planning strategies and implementation, one of the strategies is about operational.The Board of Directors and the management group suggest that it (the operational strategy) is now a matter of urgency that Japan Airline must speed up the development of the airlines state enterprise plan in compliance with the policy and guidelines., Minister Shintaro Ishihara, Tokyo Conference, Nov 6, 1987. Then, Minister Ishihara grouped Japan Airlines problems for Japan Airlines management group to take actions (Sanchanta Takahashi,2010).Although this company is now privatized, but used to be country-owned and running by Government long time, the country leaders provide comments and policies on commercial-based company. This appearance had been intervened the flexibility of Japan Airline.In 2006, Japan Airlines Chairperson, Haruka Nishimatsu established three committees, Strategic Ste ering Committee, Project Management Committee and Task Force Committee to increase competitiveness and the value of shareholder (Sanchanta Takahashi,2010). Today, Japan Airline failed to be effectively competing with other airlines because of such time-consuming and not really flexible to implement in Japan Airlines planning.ConclusionLeaders establish goals, assumptions, policies, strategies, and accepted norms of behavior. They usually recruit and promote managers who conform to their own values and expectations. While a leaders influence is evident in all organizations, it will apply more to small, highly centralized firms, or young, owner run businesses, and can increase with tenure.In the addition, the most relevant contrasts between Virgin Atlantic and Japan Airline are Virgin Atlantic emphasizes on culture and command view because of following the principle that provided by Branson that it is controlled by the company. Japan Airline emphasizes on planning view which is contr olled by Government so nearly every strategies development is produced follow the planning procedure to lead the company more systematic.In theory it should not only focus on single view, but these two companies are only focused one or two views, that led some limitations in Virgin Atlantic and Japan Airline. For Virgin Atlantic, it is highly depends on the principles of Branson, he almost becomes the only one and unique person that can decide the future of Virgin Atlantic, includes stay in the market or shut down the business. other side, for Japan Airline, it involves more procedures for making decision that could be enhances and smoothen the running for a company.As mentioned, there is only Branson is the key person for Virgin Atlantic or the whole Virgin Group, for the future, Virgin Group is suggested to established a number of rules or methods to maintain and investigate the current saturation of its businesses or the new ventures.After that, Branson is the most key person t hat affects all the things in Virgin Group, then is the staff, last is the customers.Last but not least, whether success to run a business depends on the policy, economy, society and technology in the place where located or plan to locate the business. In the result, the leader should aware all Structural, Human Resource, Political, and Symbolic framework in mind for coping the political, social, economic and technology factors positively. So, the finial suggestion is Richard Branson have to establish a committee to share and continue his great work.

Medical Brain Drain in Developing Countries

aesculapian point run off in Developing CountriesCHAPTER ONE minimiseThe exit of human capital from exploitation countries to certain countries is non a tonic phenomenon. It is comm single refer to as brain conk out which broadly represents the migration of passing educate nonrecreationals from one body politic or part of a coun render to an former(a)(prenominal) in search of a better prospect (Sako, 2002). The loss of super complete professional attributed to brain beetle off has been of interest transnation entirelyy for all everywhere four decades (Giannoccolo, 2004). Concern over the international migration of wellness proles first came to limelight at the Edinburgh state Medical Conference in 1965. This situation prompted the World wellness Organisation (WHO) in 1970 to examine the global play and flows of doctors and nurses (Mejia, 1978). The report how perpetually make little impacts on migration of wellness turn overers which has continually been on the increase over the age (Levy, 2003, Pang et al. 2002)The concept of the wellness check brain waste pipe, that is the migration of doctors and another(prenominal) wellness professionals from growth economies to ca make use ofed countries has been the subject of interest and research across a figure of fields including labour sparings, human pick studies and human geography (Diallo, 2004, Buchan, 2004 and Stilwell et al., 2004)The migration of checkup effect has been identified by WHO as the most(prenominal) critical problem cladding the rake of wellness service in develop countries (WHO, 2007), besides the exile of doctors in particular to other countries involve received a much enormous attention (Beecham, 2002)The extent to which health professionals mig order to positive countries has continue to be on the increase in recent classs and this has been attributed to an app atomic come up 18nt response to lead from the real countries where medical profess ional argon in short supply to append for demands due to demographic changes, aging population, growing income, feminisation of work force amongst others (Pond and McPake, 2006).Foreign-trained medical and nursing workforces are estimated to account for much than a quarter of health professionals of the Australia, Canada, the US, and the UK (OECD, 2002).The invite for super complete professionals has been on the increase in m whatever demonstrable countries. fit in to statistic report from the Global Atlas of Workforce cited in Pond and McPake, (2006), the linked Kingdom (UK) was stratified among the least staffed of high income countries with 166 doctors and 497 nurses per 100,000 populations the second lowest doctors tautness and the fourth nurses lowest density among the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries. save, as at the year 2000, the UK health dodging currently require about 10,000 physicians and 20,000 much nurses to meet the demand of the NHS plan (Department of health, 2000). Between the year 1999 and 2004 when the targets was achieved earlier than expected, a new target was set to increase the number of nurses by 35000 (10%) and physicians by 15000 (25%) amid 2001 and 2008. In order to achieve the new target, several methods were adopted to recruit doctors and nurses from other artless to fill the shortage within the NHS. However, the approach created a mountain in the international recruitment of health worker (Department of health, 2004).Conversely, the poor economy school in the create countries coupled with poor remunerations, lack of infrastructural facilities, and low morale, emigrating to actual countries by doctors is seen as an opportunity for a better prospect.Furthermore, the continuous rise in disease prevalence, emigration, productivity losses, and shortage of doctors in Sub-Saharan Africa, has expiryed in health resource crisis (Aluwihare, 2005). Insufficiency in human capacity for health feel for delivery in develop countries cede been identified as a epoch-making factor that is responsible for the inability to achieve the target set by WHO for the intercession of 3 million HIV infected battalion by year 2005. (This initiative was tagged 3by5) (WHO, 2005). This has also been identified as a major chasteness limiting the progress of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Initiatives (IOM, 2005).In response to the migration of health professionals to genuine countries and the chthonicmine effect to the economy, accessible and health status of exporting countries, the Commonwealth Ministers of Health agreed to uphold and keep the Commonwealth values of cooperation, share-out and supporting one a nonher, thus a consensus approach to deal with the problem of international recruitment of health workers was adopted.The Code of exercising for the International Recruitment of Health Workers is in flowed to let a framework to governments within which in ternational recruitment should be carried out (Commonwealth Code of Practise, 2003).Similarly, Department of Health (2004), presented a revised polity on code of answer for international recruitment of health bursting charge professionals this demonst regularise the concerned of the UK government in protecting the health disturbance re primary(prenominal)s of exploitation countries. The revised code of practise for recruitment addresses role of private employer and agencies in the international recruitment of health professionals from maturation countries (Eas dickensod et al., 2005).Nevertheless, developing countries have do more or less motion in rule outing the emigration of physician to actual countries. In br apiece of this, addressing factors that encourage emigration, much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) as large disparity in remunerations, standards of living, opportunities for passage development amongst host other benefits are usually difficult to co me by. At the 1998 UN Conference on Trade and Development, WHO study indicated that 56% of doctors from developing countries move to developed nations, while only 11% migrate in the opposite bearing the imbalance is even great for nurses. (Chanda, 2002).As a result, further effort is being deployed by developing countries to search for centre to manage the migration of the health workforce to developed countries (Hussey, 2007).Despite measures, it whitethorn be difficult to astray prevent health professionals from migrating. As the large scale of medical brain spill from developing countries is now having a negative impact on the development process of the health formation of those countries, it is however imperative for stakeholders to develop a consequential means to curtail the continual movements of health professionals.Nigeria Health ServicesHistorical emphasiseNigeria, the most populous black nation in the world with a list population of 140 million people (2006 cen sus). As a land with mono-cultural economy, the major source of overseas earnings is from crude oil. The poor direct of resources allocated to the health care sphere of play is one of the main factors responsible for the deplorable health condition in the sylvan (Campbell, 2007).The public health service in Nigeria started in 1946 with a 10-year colonial administration plan the development came about when intervention was postulate for soldiers of the West African Frontier Force and the colonial administration staff. In 1975 attempt was made to adopt primary health care under the Basic Health Service Scheme (BHSS). The BHSS objected to improve the memory availableness to heath care in shapes location, affordability, increase access to disease prevention and dispersal of services, and provision of adaptable health services ground on local deprivation and socially acceptable method of technology (Hodges 2001).The Current Health deal out System in NigeriaOver the last tw o decades, the health care system in Nigerias has deteriorated a fact ascribed to the areas poor governance and leadership which was more pronounced during the military era. This was reflected in budget allocations and the fiscal requirements of the Structural Adjustment Programmes. The wanting(p) of reliable data makes it difficult to provide a detailed opinion of the degree of pecuniary commitment to the health firmament (Ali-Akpjiak and Pyke, 2003).According to World verify source, Nigeria public spending per capita for the health sector is less than $5 USD and is as low as $2 USD in some parts of the country. This is far infra the $34 USD recommended by WHO for developing countries within the Macroeconomics Commission Report. Nevertheless the federal official Government repeated budget on health showed an increasing trend from 1996 to 1998, a decline in 1999 and started to rise again in 2000, available licence shows that most of the recurrent expenditure is spent on per sonnel. The Federal Government recurrent expenditure on health as a share of the total Federal Government recurrent expenditure which stood at 2.55% in 1996, 2.96% in 1997, and 2.99% in 1998, declined to 1.95% in 1999 and 2.5% rose in 2000. Beyond budgetary allocations, there is a wide gap in the available betwixt the budgetary figures and the actual tote up of funds released from the treasury for health activities (WHO 2009a).The decline in the Nigeria health sector was accompanied by collapse of institutional capacities, poor remuneration and lack of contributive environment, dilapidated equipment and infrastructure have over the years, job dissatisfaction and low motivation, have led to increase migration of health professionals to seek employment in overseas countries. In a bid to curtail the impasse, Nigeria has subscribed to the Commonwealth Code of Practice for the International Recruitment of Health Workers for which a framework of responsibilities is presently being deve loped (WHO 2009b).Demographic and Health IndicatorsThe demographic data in Nigeria are not very reliable. Data gathered from various exercises such as census, vital registrations and surveys are often inconsistence and some whiles contradictory. Nonetheless, there is evidence that the key indicators have either remained constant or worsened (WHO 2005).Life expectancy declined from 52.6 years for male and 58.8 years for female in 1991 to 45 years and 46 years for some(prenominal)(prenominal) Male and Female respectively in 2004. The infant mortality rate (IMR) in 2004 is 103 per 1000 live births when compared to 87.2 per 1000 live births in 1999. Fifty share of deaths under 5 years of age have been attributed to malnutrition.The maternal mortality rate (MMR) of 800 per 100,000 births is the second highest in the world afterwards India. This has been attributed partly to shortage of skilled medical personnel. For instance only 41.9 % of primary health facilities is provides anten atal and delivery services. Moreover 57.3% of such health facilities operate without a doctor, midwives or senior union extension worker. The Nigeria health system is one of the worst in sub-Saharan African with a disability life adjusted expectancy of 38.3 years and ranked 187 in the world (WHO 2005)Health Workforce in NigeriaAmong the several challenges facing the health system in Nigeria is the lack of competent health care professionals. This has been attributed to miserable infrastructures and poor remunerations packages, making a sizeable numbers of doctors, nurses and other medical professionals under attack(predicate) to be lured away to developed countries in search of a fulfilling and moneymaking employments (Stilwell and Awofeso, 2004, Raufu, A., 2002) in that respect are 52, 408 Nigerian Doctors registered with the Nigeria Medical Council as at December 2007, There are 128,918 nurses and 90,489 midwives on the register, although only a fraction of these pay the requi red practicing licensing fee. There are 13,199 pharmacists, 840 radiographers, 1,473 physiotherapists, 12,703 medical laboratory scientists, and 19,268 Community Health Officers. All these health workers are required to pay annual practicing licensing fees however the lists have not been pruned for those have migrated out to external countries, deaths, retirements or those that have left the profession for another career entirely.Health workers are poorly distributed and most are in favour of urban areas, southern, tertiary health care services delivery, and curative care. For some cadres of health workers such as doctors and nurses, more than 50% have their air of work in the due south Western part of the country with vast bulk residing in the commercial city of Lagos (Labiran et. al, 2008).Medical Brain Drain in NigeriaAmong the countries in sub-Saharan African, Nigeria is a major export of health professionals. An estimated number of 20, 000 health professionals immigrate fro m Africa annually. A trend that poses threat to sustainable health care delivery in Nigeria. Statistical data on Nigerian doctors who are lawfully migrating overseas are scarce and unreliable, this is largely due to the fact that most wealthy nations like Australia currently makes it very difficult for overseas trained doctors to practise in their country primarily on the basis of medical skills. However, hundreds of doctors trained in Nigeria continue to emigrate to developed countries annually (Stilwell and Awofeso, 2004). Better remunerations and medical facilities among other factors are cited as one of the major reason for flight of Nigerian doctors (Raufu, 2002) and also there are limited incentives and encouragement for overseas based Nigerian doctors that is willing to relocate back to the country (Stilwell et al., 2004).Purpose of the studyIn sub-Saharan African, there is has been a evidentiary rise in disease burden, loss of productivity and the emigration of medical doc tors to developed counties have resulted in the in dearth of the most required health resource (Aluwihare, 2005). Most studies on medical brain drain have examined the subject from the perspective of recipient developed countries and little attention has been paid to the donor developing countries. Thus, scarcity of data from developing country makes it difficult to fully describe the impact of migration on countries of wrinkle (Hagopian et al., 2004). Most studies on doctors migration from Sub-Saharan African have tended to focus on numbers, without exploring the central reason for migration, assessing the potential negative impact of migration on the health care systems, or considering means to alleviate the problem. In actual fact, nurture regarding the extent of migration is usually obtained through data from countries of destination (Stilwell et al 2003).The migration of medical doctors from Nigeria and other countries in sub-Saharan African reachs three areas of major conc ern. The first is a loss of the underlying health services available to the citizen. for instance, Ghana, faced with a ratio of club doctors to every 100 000 patients and no more than 22 paediatrician are certify to practise in country and no more than 10 specialists of any kind practising in the remote area. Similarly, Nigeria lack adequate doctors to care for the sick peculiarly patients residing in the rural communitiesThe second effect doctor migration from Nigeria is that it prevent the health sectors the ability to organize and expand. Public health institutions heavily depend on doctors to lead, develop and promote them as they work to advance health care delivery. As obtained in US, doctors are well positioned to serve their organisation by actively obscure in managing resources and articulating priorities. It is therefore speculated that as the numbers of available medical doctors in developing countries reduces.The third challenges are that doctors migration depletes a momentous element of the middle consort in developing countries. As in the developed countries, medical doctors in African comprise of an important segment of the social and economic make up of the middle class. They are publicly accorded a masses of respect in the society, as being above corruption, they advocate for improvement in quality of rearing of public schools and they play a vital role in policy-making (Hagopian et al., 2005). In Nigeria, over 70.2% of the population lives on $1 per day (WHO, 2006)Research aim and objectivesThe aim of this study is to analyse the causes of medical brain drain from developing countries, benefits and burdens associated with brain drain based largely on the views of Nigerian doctors practising in UK.The objectives areTo fall upon the factors that influence the end of medical doctors to migrate to developed countries migrationTo identify the impacts of migration on healthcare in developing countriesCHAPTER TWOLITERATURE REVIEW innova tion of Brian DrainBrain drain has been make up ones mindd by many analysts in several(predicate) ways. It is not surprising the social phenomenon has been examined and analysed from different perspective, based on their general orientation and or awareness of the subject.Brain drain will be conceived in this study as the loss of medical professionals or significant number of human capital within the health care system to other sector of the economy or country.Migration of skilled professionals differs from one country to another and from time to time it is however misleading to generalise the possible impacts of migration in developing countries. Moreover, it can be argued that various studies have attempted to measure the phenomenon from different perspective. unmarried analytic measurement cannot be used to justify all migration although migration of highly skilled professionals from developing countries has been attributed to various factors which political, social and econom ical factors account for a significant reasons behind the phenomenon (AUN report, 2002).The migration of highly skilled workers can justify the use of the term brain drain however the expression should be used cautiously. Replacing drain by a more common and value expression such as migration may generate alternate meaning. The difference in the word may be heightened by saying while all brain drains name brain migration notwithstanding, brain migration may not necessarily refer to brain drain.Brain drain denote the de-facto transfer of resources spent on impacting education and developing both technical and professional skills of the drained brain in question by the parent (donor) country to the (recipient) country of transfer. The developed countries thus save financial resources on education and professional training and invariably obtain the service of professionals such as doctors, nurses, engineers, scientists who earn more than their colleague in developing countries with a better comfortable living environment (Glaser and Habers, 1978).Several efforts have been made to define the concept of brain drain, most especially by international organisation. According to linked Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO report, 1969), the brain drain could be defined as an abnormal form of scientific exchange between countries, characterized by a one- way flow in favour of the most highly developed countries. Approximately four decades later, the definition of brain drain has undergone no significant change with a lot of highly skilled workers still leaving the shores of developing countries in pursuit of greener pastures in the developed nations. Medical doctors, engineers and scientists usually tend to predominate or account for a larger proportion among the migrators. Their higher the level of skills or professional qualification, make them more persuasible to migration.Gillis, et al. (1987) suggested two main reasons why brain dra in is detestable to most developing countries. The first is that the calibres of people that migrate represent one of the scarce human resources in these developing countries and secondly the amount of resources, financial cost and time involve in educating these chemical group of people is expensive and heavily subsidise by the government. Such migration to foreign country therefore becomes expensive and costly to the donor countries. In most cases the developing countries completely loose these highly skill professionals to the developed countries (Edokat, 2000). This phenomenon has generated a lot of arguments that have been advance(a) for or against brain drain however this is not a concern for this study. All that can be concluded is that migration of highly skilled workers from developing countries to develop countries creates a vacuum in the former countries (Edokat, 2000).Types of brain drainPrimary external brain drain occurs when trained professional or skilled human re sources emigrate from their country of origin to work in developed countries such as America, Europe and Australia.Secondary external brain drain occurs when a trained professional or skilled human resources leave their country or any other less developed country to work in a another developing country such as Botswana, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Namibia.Internal brain drain occurs when a trained professional or skilled or skilled human resources seek for employment in a field not related to his to his/her expertise or when such item-by-item migrate from the public sector to private sector or to another sector within a particular country. While this may pose a problem for a country, it is however not a loss of human resource to the country or the continent.Brain Drain TheoriesThese theories are based on general migration approaches. In brain drain discussion, these approaches have been referred to briefly or summarized. at times specific remarks will be made to provide more limp idity regarding the theories.It is however important to state that nearly the theoretical outlook consists of specific concoction of different theories or based on the temperament of the dominating factors. On the other hand, the scientific approach in which the theories were founded. Another approach in the use of division based on the level Micro, Meso or Macro. These groups cover greater number of theoretical approaches (Oderth, 2002).This level has been defined asMicro level the finis making of individual is affected by his or her motives, circumstances and access to information.Meso level an aspect of social ties that affects migration such as the effect of network of friends and relatives on migrationMacro level opportunities and constraints available at societal level which take on political, socio-cultural and economical factorsThere is no Grand theory linked with research on brain drain although attempts have been made to integrate the subject with economic and soci al theory, spatial analysis and social science (Kangasniemi et. al., 2004). The study of brain drain and other behaviour by demographers was able to draw insights from other disciplines such as statistics, history, economy, medicine and anthropology (Oderth 2001). A common example is the publicise and pull sit down of labour mobility. The model states that individual migration decision is a combination of family, economic, social and political factors. Categories of factors identified to be affecting migration embroil 1) Factors at the point of origin, 2) Factors at point of destination, 3) Intervening obstacles and 4) personal circumstances. The push and pull model has been widely used by scholars in studies. Economic factors of employment and material benefits are regarded to have the strongest influence on migration decision (Oderth 2002)Despite the frequent use of the push and pull model approach in migration literature, the approach has been seen as too robotic and rational choice based and with less consideration for intervening obstacles or institutional and structural constraints (Massey et al, 1993). Most migration tends to be unidirectional from poor to rich nations. The rate of emigration also differs vary considerately between countries and regions on quasi(prenominal) economic level and the poorest or the less educated people hardly ever move. A major challenge for the migration is lack of insights in the interconnectedness of all the processes (Kangasniemi et. al., 2004)Another model is the migration system approach it involves formation of a link that encourages migration between a sender and receivers which are strengthened over a full point of time. Such links intromit economic, political and cultural interaction often based on historical activities. Once a link has been created between the migrant places subsequent migration is facilitated through the links.The migration system approach emphasis that social network of the migration pr ovides the intending migrants with information and assistance to ease migration. An important feature of such system is that immigration to a country is directed to specific regions. Such migration is partly dependent on specific areas (Gillis, et al. (1987)).The scope of medical brain drainThe World Health Report (2006) estimated that an approximately 817,992 (138%) health workers would be required In Africa to achieve the insurance coverage of basic health interventions.The rate at which doctors and other health professional migrate differs from country to country. Nevertheless, the pattern of migration shares certain similarities. The severe shortage of doctors particularly in rural health facilities has critical negative effects on accessibility and equitable distribution of health care in sub-Saharan African (Ovberedjo, 2007). canvass a specific group of employments from a pool of migration statistics revealed a square(a) net loss of human capital among certain key professio n in sub-Saharan African. An obvious and highly skilled professional to emerge from such analysis are medical doctors (SOPEMI, 2008). This particular phenomenon can be described as Medical Brain Drain. However, to what extent doctors migrated from sub Saharan African to developed countries?This section will review the scope of migration among doctors in sub Saharan African. Medical brain drain is important and deserves consideration because it is obvious that any go down in the labour supply among doctors in any country is bound to generate a significant negative impact on the health system of that particular country.In year 2000, statistical data revealed an average of 18.2% of employed doctors functional in OECD countries were foreigners. The United States has the largest number of doctors (about 200,000) born and trained in foreign countries followed by the United Kingdom which account for almost 50,000 and France about 34,000. Health worker in India and Filipino formed a gre ater percentage of the immigrant health workforce OECD countries. In addition, doctors from India account for 56,000 of foreign born doctors practising in OECD countries while nurses of Philippine origin account for about 110, 000. These represent about 15% each of the total (SOPEMI, 2008).The French and the Portuguese African speaking countries contribute some of the highest emigration rate to OECD countries for medical doctors some of other African countries such as Guinea Bissau, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Carpe Verde, Congo, Benin and Togo rank between 17th and 23rd places with emigration rate of 40%, while the English speaking countries in African such as Malawi, Kenya and Ghana have lower emigration rate ranked 25th, 28th and thirty-eighth respectively. South African and Nigeria were the only two countries in sub-Saharan African among the top 25 countries with foreign doctors and nurses practising in the OECD countries. This was due to the fact that most African countries have smaller population of workforce (SOPEMI, 2007).Statistical data from the American Medical Association (AMA) Physician Master file shows that 5, 334 non-federal trained doctors trained in Africa medical schools were licensed to practise medicine in the United States in 2002. Nigeria account for 2,158, while South Africa 1,943 doctors. Another 478 doctors are from Ghana medical schools. new(prenominal) countries change to the list in sub-Saharan African include Ethiopia 257 physician, Uganda 153 doctors, and Kenya 93 doctors. The total number of 5,334 represents 6% of the total number African doctors (Hagopian et al. 2004).After United States, the United Kingdom and Canada are the most common destinations in developed countries for African Physicians, with a total of 3,451 and 2, 151 African trained doctors are recorded to be practising in United Kingdom and Canada respectively. Moreover figures in the UK include only doctors who arrived after 1992 thus the number may proba bly be higher, other destinations for African-trained doctors include Australia, New Zealand and the Gulf States (Hagopian et al. 2003)Migration of doctors also occurs between countries within African continent. For instance, countries such as South Africa, Senegal and Botswana export doctors to developed countries and likewise import doctors from other African countries to cater for shortfall in medical personnel (EQUINET, 2003).Causes of Brain DrainThe factors guiding individual choice of migration is in essence personal and thus susceptible to the prevailing personal circumstances. Nonetheless, the economic and social context of such decision deserves an important consideration. Moreover, the disparity between the economic and social development status of different sectors within a particular country and of different countries within African has countries has broaden over the year (Stilwell, 2004).Brain drain of doctors and other highly skilled professional from Africa has been b lame on unfulfilled dream at country of origin caused by strife, corruption and misuse that mark Africas post-colonial history (Bridgewater, 2003 cited in Mbanefoh, 2007). also according to Dovlo (2003), causes can be linked using six gradients which include job satisfaction, salary, career opportunity, governance, social security and benefit, protection and risk. Furthermore the dualistic nature of the world economy has been found to be a major contributing factor to brain drain, as highly skilled medical professionals particularly doctors try to escape the endemic poverty by migrating to wealthy, developed and technologically advanced countries of the world (Mbanefoh, 2007).Factors guiding individual decision to emigrate are a result of the interplay of economic, cultural, social, political and legal forces. Others factors encouraging cross-border migration are usually considered under two main categories Push factors (Supply) and Pull factors (Demand) (Kline, 2003). Over time th e pattern of migration is facilitated through networks that provide prospective migrants with information about job opportunities in countries of destination as well as offer various support to help adjustment after migration (Matin, 2003).Push factors (Supply) these are conditions that make a doctor to be dissatisfy with work and professional careers in their country of origin. The factors may be evident both in the developed and developing countries facilitating the migration of health care professionals from one country to another which is perceive to offer better opportunities in some way. However, these factors are more prominent in developing countries, and they greatly influence the decision of doctors to emigrate in these countries.Pull factors (Demand) these are conditions in countries of destination that motivate workers to migrate. In the equal manner as push factors, pull factors can also influence the migration of doctors from one developed country to another develo ped country. However, the pull factors has a more pronounced influence on individuals in developing countries for instance, there is pile in migration of nurses to Canada after the review of cost ofMedical Brain Drain in Developing CountriesMedical Brain Drain in Developing CountriesCHAPTER ONEBACKGROUNDThe loss of human capital from developing countries to developed countries is not a new phenomenon. It is commonly refer to as brain drain which broadly represents the migration of highly skilled professionals from one country or part of a country to another in search of a better prospect (Sako, 2002). The loss of highly skilled professional attributed to brain drain has been of interest internationally for over four decades (Giannoccolo, 2004). Concern over the international migration of health workers first came to limelight at the Edinburgh Commonwealth Medical Conference in 1965. This situation prompted the World Health Organisation (WHO) in 1970 to examine the global process an d flows of doctors and nurses (Mejia, 1978). The report however made little impacts on migration of health workers which has continually been on the increase over the years (Levy, 2003, Pang et al. 2002)The concept of the medical brain drain, that is the migration of doctors and other health professionals from developing economies to developed countries has been the subject of interest and research across a variety of fields including labour economics, human resource studies and human geography (Diallo, 2004, Buchan, 2004 and Stilwell et al., 2004)The migration of medical personnel has been identified by WHO as the most critical problem facing the delivery of health service in developing countries (WHO, 2007), besides the emigration of doctors in particular to other countries have received a more considerable attention (Beecham, 2002)The extent to which health professionals migrate to developed countries has continue to be on the increase in recent years and this has been attributed to an apparent response to demand from the developed countries where medical professional are in short supply to cater for demands due to demographic changes, aging population, growing income, feminisation of workforce amongst others (Pond and McPake, 2006).Foreign-trained medical and nursing workforces are estimated to account for more than a quarter of health professionals of the Australia, Canada, the US, and the UK (OECD, 2002).The quest for highly skilled professionals has been on the increase in many developed countries. According to statistic report from the Global Atlas of Workforce cited in Pond and McPake, (2006), the United Kingdom (UK) was ranked among the least staffed of high income countries with 166 doctors and 497 nurses per 100,000 populations the second lowest doctors density and the fourth nurses lowest density among the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries. Moreover, as at the year 2000, the UK health system currently require about 10,000 physicians and 20,000 more nurses to meet the demand of the NHS plan (Department of Health, 2000). Between the year 1999 and 2004 when the targets was achieved earlier than expected, a new target was set to increase the number of nurses by 35000 (10%) and physicians by 15000 (25%) between 2001 and 2008. In order to achieve the new target, several methods were adopted to recruit doctors and nurses from other country to fill the shortage within the NHS. However, the approach created a surge in the international recruitment of health worker (Department of Health, 2004).Conversely, the poor economy condition in the developing countries coupled with poor remunerations, lack of infrastructural facilities, and low morale, emigrating to developed countries by doctors is seen as an opportunity for a better prospect.Furthermore, the continuous rise in disease prevalence, emigration, productivity losses, and shortage of doctors in Sub-Saharan Africa, has resulted in health resourc e crisis (Aluwihare, 2005). Insufficiency in human capacity for health care delivery in developing countries have been identified as a significant factor that is responsible for the inability to achieve the target set by WHO for the treatment of 3 million HIV infected people by year 2005. (This initiative was tagged 3by5) (WHO, 2005). This has also been identified as a major constraint limiting the progress of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Initiatives (IOM, 2005).In response to the migration of health professionals to developed countries and the undermine effect to the economy, social and health status of exporting countries, the Commonwealth Ministers of Health agreed to uphold and keep the Commonwealth values of cooperation, sharing and supporting one another, thus a consensus approach to deal with the problem of international recruitment of health workers was adopted.The Code of Practice for the International Recruitment of Health Workers is intended to provide a framework to governments within which international recruitment should be carried out (Commonwealth Code of Practise, 2003).Similarly, Department of Health (2004), presented a revised policy on code of practise for international recruitment of health care professionals this demonstrated the concerned of the UK government in protecting the health care system of developing countries. The revised code of practise for recruitment addresses role of private employer and agencies in the international recruitment of health professionals from developing countries (Eastwood et al., 2005).Nevertheless, developing countries have made some effort in preventing the emigration of physician to developed countries. In spite of this, addressing factors that encourage emigration, such as large disparity in remunerations, standards of living, opportunities for career development amongst host other benefits are usually difficult to come by. At the 1998 UN Conference on Trade and Development, WHO study indicated t hat 56% of doctors from developing countries migrate to developed nations, while only 11% migrate in the opposite direction the imbalance is even greater for nurses. (Chanda, 2002).As a result, further effort is being deployed by developing countries to search for means to manage the migration of the health workforce to developed countries (Hussey, 2007).Despite measures, it may be difficult to totally prevent health professionals from migrating. As the large scale of medical brain drain from developing countries is now having a negative impact on the development process of the health system of those countries, it is however imperative for stakeholders to develop a consequential means to curtail the continual movements of health professionals.Nigeria Health ServicesHistorical BackgroundNigeria, the most populous black nation in the world with a total population of 140 million people (2006 census). As a country with mono-cultural economy, the major source of foreign earnings is from crude oil. The poor level of resources allocated to the health care sector is one of the main factors responsible for the deplorable health condition in the country (Campbell, 2007).The public health service in Nigeria started in 1946 with a 10-year colonial administration plan the development came about when treatment was required for soldiers of the West African Frontier Force and the colonial administration staff. In 1975 attempt was made to adopt primary health care under the Basic Health Service Scheme (BHSS). The BHSS aimed to improve the accessibility to heath care in terms location, affordability, increase access to disease prevention and distribution of services, and provision of adaptable health services based on local need and socially acceptable method of technology (Hodges 2001).The Current Health Care System in NigeriaOver the last two decades, the health care system in Nigerias has deteriorated a fact ascribed to the countrys poor governance and leadership which was more pronounced during the military era. This was reflected in budget allocations and the fiscal requirements of the Structural Adjustment Programmes. The deficient of reliable data makes it difficult to provide a detailed assessment of the degree of financial commitment to the health sector (Ali-Akpjiak and Pyke, 2003).According to World Bank source, Nigeria public spending per capita for the health sector is less than $5 USD and is as low as $2 USD in some parts of the country. This is far below the $34 USD recommended by WHO for developing countries within the Macroeconomics Commission Report. Nevertheless the Federal Government recurrent budget on health showed an increasing trend from 1996 to 1998, a decline in 1999 and started to rise again in 2000, available evidence shows that most of the recurrent expenditure is spent on personnel. The Federal Government recurrent expenditure on health as a share of the total Federal Government recurrent expenditure which stood at 2.55% in 1996, 2.96% in 1997, and 2.99% in 1998, declined to 1.95% in 1999 and 2.5% rose in 2000. Beyond budgetary allocations, there is a wide gap in the available between the budgetary figures and the actual amount of funds released from the treasury for health activities (WHO 2009a).The decline in the Nigeria health sector was accompanied by collapse of institutional capacities, poor remuneration and lack of conducive environment, dilapidated equipment and infrastructure have over the years, job dissatisfaction and low motivation, have led to increase migration of health professionals to seek employment in overseas countries. In a bid to curtail the impasse, Nigeria has subscribed to the Commonwealth Code of Practice for the International Recruitment of Health Workers for which a framework of responsibilities is presently being developed (WHO 2009b).Demographic and Health IndicatorsThe demographic data in Nigeria are not very reliable. Data gathered from various exercises such as census, vital registrations and surveys are often inconsistence and sometimes contradictory. Nonetheless, there is evidence that the key indicators have either remained constant or worsened (WHO 2005).Life expectancy declined from 52.6 years for male and 58.8 years for female in 1991 to 45 years and 46 years for both Male and Female respectively in 2004. The infant mortality rate (IMR) in 2004 is 103 per 1000 live births when compared to 87.2 per 1000 live births in 1999. Fifty percent of deaths under 5 years of age have been attributed to malnutrition.The maternal mortality rate (MMR) of 800 per 100,000 births is the second highest in the world after India. This has been attributed partly to shortage of skilled medical personnel. For instance only 41.9 % of primary health facilities is provides antenatal and delivery services. Moreover 57.3% of such health facilities operate without a doctor, midwives or senior community extension worker. The Nigeria health system is one of the worst in su b-Saharan African with a disability life adjusted expectancy of 38.3 years and ranked 187 in the world (WHO 2005)Health Workforce in NigeriaAmong the several challenges facing the health system in Nigeria is the lack of competent health care professionals. This has been attributed to inadequate infrastructures and poor remunerations packages, making a sizeable numbers of doctors, nurses and other medical professionals vulnerable to be lured away to developed countries in search of a fulfilling and lucrative employments (Stilwell and Awofeso, 2004, Raufu, A., 2002)There are 52, 408 Nigerian Doctors registered with the Nigeria Medical Council as at December 2007, There are 128,918 nurses and 90,489 midwives on the register, although only a fraction of these pay the required practicing licensing fee. There are 13,199 pharmacists, 840 radiographers, 1,473 physiotherapists, 12,703 medical laboratory scientists, and 19,268 Community Health Officers. All these health workers are required t o pay annual practicing licensing fees however the lists have not been pruned for those have migrated out to foreign countries, deaths, retirements or those that have left the profession for another career entirely.Health workers are poorly distributed and most are in favour of urban areas, southern, tertiary health care services delivery, and curative care. For some cadres of health workers such as doctors and nurses, more than 50% have their place of work in the South Western part of the country with vast majority residing in the commercial city of Lagos (Labiran et. al, 2008).Medical Brain Drain in NigeriaAmong the countries in sub-Saharan African, Nigeria is a major export of health professionals. An estimated number of 20, 000 health professionals emigrate from Africa annually. A trend that poses threat to sustainable health care delivery in Nigeria. Statistical data on Nigerian doctors who are legally migrating overseas are scarce and unreliable, this is largely due to the fac t that most wealthy nations like Australia currently makes it very difficult for overseas trained doctors to practise in their country primarily on the basis of medical skills. However, hundreds of doctors trained in Nigeria continue to emigrate to developed countries annually (Stilwell and Awofeso, 2004). Better remunerations and medical facilities among other factors are cited as one of the major reason for flight of Nigerian doctors (Raufu, 2002) and also there are limited incentives and encouragement for overseas based Nigerian doctors that is willing to relocate back to the country (Stilwell et al., 2004).Purpose of the studyIn sub-Saharan African, there is has been a significant rise in disease burden, loss of productivity and the emigration of medical doctors to developed counties have resulted in the in dearth of the most required health resource (Aluwihare, 2005). Most studies on medical brain drain have examined the subject from the perspective of recipient developed count ries and little attention has been paid to the donor developing countries. Thus, scarcity of data from developing country makes it difficult to fully describe the impact of migration on countries of origin (Hagopian et al., 2004). Most studies on doctors migration from Sub-Saharan African have tended to focus on numbers, without exploring the underlying reason for migration, assessing the potential negative impact of migration on the health care systems, or considering means to alleviate the problem. In actual fact, information regarding the extent of migration is usually obtained through data from countries of destination (Stilwell et al 2003).The migration of medical doctors from Nigeria and other countries in sub-Saharan African generates three areas of major concern. The first is a loss of the basic health services available to the citizen. for instance, Ghana, faced with a ratio of nine doctors to every 100 000 patients and no more than 22 paediatrician are licensed to practise in country and no more than 10 specialists of any kind practising in the remote area. Similarly, Nigeria lack adequate doctors to care for the sick especially patients residing in the rural communitiesThe second effect doctor migration from Nigeria is that it prevent the health sectors the ability to organize and expand. Public health institutions heavily depend on doctors to lead, develop and promote them as they work to advance health care delivery. As obtained in US, doctors are well positioned to serve their organisation by actively involved in managing resources and articulating priorities. It is therefore speculated that as the numbers of available medical doctors in developing countries reduces.The third challenges are that doctors migration depletes a significant element of the middle class in developing countries. As in the developed countries, medical doctors in African comprise of an important segment of the social and economic make up of the middle class. They are gener ally accorded a lot of respect in the society, as being above corruption, they advocate for improvement in quality of education of public schools and they play a vital role in political (Hagopian et al., 2005). In Nigeria, over 70.2% of the population lives on $1 per day (WHO, 2006)Research aim and objectivesThe aim of this study is to analyse the causes of medical brain drain from developing countries, benefits and burdens associated with brain drain based largely on the views of Nigerian doctors practising in UK.The objectives areTo identify the factors that influence the decision of medical doctors to migrate to developed countries migrationTo identify the impacts of migration on healthcare in developing countriesCHAPTER TWOLITERATURE REVIEWConcept of Brian DrainBrain drain has been defined by many analysts in different ways. It is not surprising the social phenomenon has been examined and analysed from different perspective, based on their general orientation and or awareness of the subject.Brain drain will be conceived in this study as the loss of medical professionals or significant number of human capital within the health care system to other sector of the economy or country.Migration of skilled professionals differs from one country to another and from time to time it is however misleading to generalise the possible impacts of migration in developing countries. Moreover, it can be argued that various studies have attempted to measure the phenomenon from different perspective. Single analytic measurement cannot be used to justify all migration although migration of highly skilled professionals from developing countries has been attributed to various factors which political, social and economical factors account for a significant reasons behind the phenomenon (AUN report, 2002).The migration of highly skilled workers can justify the use of the term brain drain however the expression should be used cautiously. Replacing drain by a more common and value e xpression such as migration may generate alternate meaning. The difference in the word may be heightened by saying while all brain drains constitute brain migration notwithstanding, brain migration may not necessarily refer to brain drain.Brain drain denote the de-facto transfer of resources spent on impacting education and developing both technical and professional skills of the drained brain in question by the parent (donor) country to the (recipient) country of transfer. The developed countries thus save financial resources on education and professional training and invariably obtain the service of professionals such as doctors, nurses, engineers, scientists who earn more than their colleague in developing countries with a better comfortable living environment (Glaser and Habers, 1978).Several efforts have been made to define the concept of brain drain, most especially by international organisation. According to United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UN ESCO report, 1969), the brain drain could be defined as an abnormal form of scientific exchange between countries, characterized by a one- way flow in favour of the most highly developed countries. Approximately four decades later, the definition of brain drain has undergone no significant change with a lot of highly skilled workers still leaving the shores of developing countries in pursuit of greener pastures in the developed nations. Medical doctors, engineers and scientists usually tend to predominate or account for a larger proportion among the migrants. Their higher the level of skills or professional qualification, make them more susceptible to migration.Gillis, et al. (1987) suggested two main reasons why brain drain is detestable to most developing countries. The first is that the calibres of people that migrate represent one of the scarce human resources in these developing countries and secondly the amount of resources, financial cost and time involve in educating these g roup of people is expensive and heavily subsidise by the government. Such migration to foreign country therefore becomes expensive and costly to the donor countries. In most cases the developing countries completely loose these highly skill professionals to the developed countries (Edokat, 2000). This phenomenon has generated a lot of arguments that have been advanced for or against brain drain however this is not a concern for this study. All that can be concluded is that migration of highly skilled workers from developing countries to develop countries creates a vacuum in the former countries (Edokat, 2000).Types of brain drainPrimary external brain drain occurs when trained professional or skilled human resources emigrate from their country of origin to work in developed countries such as America, Europe and Australia.Secondary external brain drain occurs when a trained professional or skilled human resources leave their country or any other less developed country to work in a another developing country such as Botswana, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Namibia.Internal brain drain occurs when a trained professional or skilled or skilled human resources seek for employment in a field not related to his to his/her expertise or when such individual migrate from the public sector to private sector or to another sector within a particular country. While this may pose a problem for a country, it is however not a loss of human resource to the country or the continent.Brain Drain TheoriesThese theories are based on general migration approaches. In brain drain discussion, these approaches have been referred to briefly or summarized. Occasionally specific remarks will be made to provide more clarity regarding the theories.It is however important to state that nearly the theoretical outlook consists of specific mix of different theories or based on the nature of the dominating factors. On the other hand, the scientific approach in which the theories were founded. Anothe r approach in the use of division based on the level Micro, Meso or Macro. These groups cover greater number of theoretical approaches (Oderth, 2002).This level has been defined asMicro level the decision making of individual is affected by his or her motives, circumstances and access to information.Meso level an aspect of social ties that affects migration such as the effect of network of friends and relatives on migrationMacro level opportunities and constraints available at societal level which include political, socio-cultural and economical factorsThere is no Grand theory linked with research on brain drain although attempts have been made to integrate the subject with economic and social theory, spatial analysis and social science (Kangasniemi et. al., 2004). The study of brain drain and other behaviour by demographers was able to draw insights from other disciplines such as statistics, history, economy, medicine and anthropology (Oderth 2001). A common example is the push and pull model of labour mobility. The model states that individual migration decision is a combination of family, economic, social and political factors. Categories of factors identified to be affecting migration include 1) Factors at the point of origin, 2) Factors at point of destination, 3) Intervening obstacles and 4) personal circumstances. The push and pull model has been widely used by scholars in studies. Economic factors of employment and material benefits are regarded to have the strongest influence on migration decision (Oderth 2002)Despite the frequent use of the push and pull model approach in migration literature, the approach has been seen as too mechanical and rational choice based and with less consideration for intervening obstacles or institutional and structural constraints (Massey et al, 1993). Most migration tends to be unidirectional from poor to rich nations. The rate of emigration also differs vary considerately between countries and regions on similar eco nomic level and the poorest or the less educated people hardly ever move. A major challenge for the migration is lack of insights in the interconnectedness of all the processes (Kangasniemi et. al., 2004)Another model is the migration system approach it involves formation of a link that encourages migration between a sender and receivers which are strengthened over a period of time. Such links include economic, political and cultural interaction often based on historical activities. Once a link has been created between the migrant places subsequent migration is facilitated through the links.The migration system approach emphasis that social network of the migration provides the intending migrants with information and assistance to ease migration. An important feature of such system is that immigration to a country is directed to specific regions. Such migration is partly dependent on specific areas (Gillis, et al. (1987)).The scope of medical brain drainThe World Health Report (200 6) estimated that an approximately 817,992 (138%) health workers would be required In Africa to achieve the coverage of basic health interventions.The rate at which doctors and other health professional migrate differs from country to country. Nevertheless, the pattern of migration shares certain similarities. The severe shortage of doctors particularly in rural health facilities has critical negative effects on accessibility and equitable distribution of health care in sub-Saharan African (Ovberedjo, 2007).Studying a specific group of employments from a pool of migration statistics revealed a substantial net loss of human capital among certain key profession in sub-Saharan African. An obvious and highly skilled professional to emerge from such analysis are medical doctors (SOPEMI, 2008). This particular phenomenon can be described as Medical Brain Drain. However, to what extent doctors migrated from sub Saharan African to developed countries?This section will review the scope of m igration among doctors in sub Saharan African. Medical brain drain is important and deserves consideration because it is obvious that any decrease in the labour supply among doctors in any country is bound to generate a significant negative impact on the health system of that particular country.In year 2000, statistical data revealed an average of 18.2% of employed doctors working in OECD countries were foreigners. The United States has the largest number of doctors (about 200,000) born and trained in foreign countries followed by the United Kingdom which account for almost 50,000 and France about 34,000. Health worker in India and Philippine formed a greater percentage of the immigrant health workforce OECD countries. In addition, doctors from India account for 56,000 of foreign born doctors practising in OECD countries while nurses of Philippine origin account for about 110, 000. These represent about 15% each of the total (SOPEMI, 2008).The French and the Portuguese African spea king countries contribute some of the highest emigration rate to OECD countries for medical doctors some of other African countries such as Guinea Bissau, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Carpe Verde, Congo, Benin and Togo rank between 17th and 23rd places with emigration rate of 40%, while the English speaking countries in African such as Malawi, Kenya and Ghana have lower emigration rate ranked 25th, 28th and 38th respectively. South African and Nigeria were the only two countries in sub-Saharan African among the top 25 countries with foreign doctors and nurses practising in the OECD countries. This was due to the fact that most African countries have smaller population of workforce (SOPEMI, 2007).Statistical data from the American Medical Association (AMA) Physician Master file shows that 5, 334 non-federal trained doctors trained in Africa medical schools were licensed to practise medicine in the United States in 2002. Nigeria account for 2,158, while South Africa 1,943 doctors. Another 478 doctors are from Ghana medical schools. Other countries contributing to the list in sub-Saharan African include Ethiopia 257 physician, Uganda 153 doctors, and Kenya 93 doctors. The total number of 5,334 represents 6% of the total number African doctors (Hagopian et al. 2004).After United States, the United Kingdom and Canada are the most common destinations in developed countries for African Physicians, with a total of 3,451 and 2, 151 African trained doctors are recorded to be practising in United Kingdom and Canada respectively. Moreover figures in the UK include only doctors who arrived after 1992 thus the number may probably be higher, other destinations for African-trained doctors include Australia, New Zealand and the Gulf States (Hagopian et al. 2003)Migration of doctors also occurs between countries within African continent. For instance, countries such as South Africa, Senegal and Botswana export doctors to developed countries and likewise import doctors fro m other African countries to cater for shortfall in medical personnel (EQUINET, 2003).Causes of Brain DrainThe factors guiding individual choice of migration is in essence personal and thus susceptible to the prevailing personal circumstances. Nonetheless, the economic and social context of such decision deserves an important consideration. Moreover, the disparity between the economic and social development status of different sectors within a particular country and of different countries within African has countries has broaden over the year (Stilwell, 2004).Brain drain of doctors and other highly skilled professional from Africa has been blame on unfulfilled dream at country of origin caused by strife, corruption and misuse that mark Africas post-colonial history (Bridgewater, 2003 cited in Mbanefoh, 2007). Also according to Dovlo (2003), causes can be linked using six gradients which include job satisfaction, salary, career opportunity, governance, social security and benefit, pr otection and risk. Furthermore the dualistic nature of the world economy has been found to be a major contributing factor to brain drain, as highly skilled medical professionals particularly doctors try to escape the endemic poverty by migrating to wealthy, developed and technologically advanced countries of the world (Mbanefoh, 2007).Factors guiding individual decision to emigrate are a result of the interplay of economic, cultural, social, political and legal forces. Others factors encouraging cross-border migration are usually considered under two main categories Push factors (Supply) and Pull factors (Demand) (Kline, 2003). Over time the pattern of migration is facilitated through networks that provide prospective migrants with information about job opportunities in countries of destination as well as offer various support to help adjustment after migration (Matin, 2003).Push factors (Supply) these are conditions that make a doctor to be dissatisfied with work and professional careers in their country of origin. The factors may be evident both in the developed and developing countries facilitating the migration of health care professionals from one country to another which is perceive to offer better opportunities in some way. However, these factors are more prominent in developing countries, and they greatly influence the decision of doctors to emigrate in these countries.Pull factors (Demand) these are conditions in countries of destination that motivate workers to migrate. In the same manner as push factors, pull factors can also influence the migration of doctors from one developed country to another developed country. However, the pull factors has a more pronounced influence on individuals in developing countries for instance, there is surge in migration of nurses to Canada after the review of cost of

Descriptive Essay on Basketball Gym -- description, Observation Essay

The gym where I practice to win, the YMCA, is a place where I know who I am. It is a place I can go to escape my problems for awhile and release or so stress. It is not the actual physical building, but rather the events that have occurred over the years. It is where I have formed some of the closest friendships. It is the place I have invested years of hard work for many of my accomplishments. To some it may seem odd that a place associated with childbed and physical pain can mean so much to one person. However, in my eyes it is almost like a second home. A current familiarity has developed over time that makes it home. As I sit here, I can vividly picture myself there. I drive my car into the pot-hole filled lay lot off the main street, and park in the same spot I always have, people just seem to know thats my spot. walkway around the back I gently push open the wooden door, which is like a barrier between two different worlds. The hot stocky air quickly rushes out and escapes past my body. The familiar damp smell of sweat still inundates my nose when I walk into the ...

machiavelli :: essays research papers fc

Philip HabibNov.1, 2003Block DMachiavelliBibliographyJames Burnham The Machiavellians Defenders of FreedomGateway Editions, Washington D.C., 1987A political theorist named James Burnham states that in swan to be scientific, its method and goals must not be transcendentally based, and its outcome must be realistic. Dante de Monarchia and Machiavelli were considered two of the best political theorists in the time of the spiritual rebirth however, they both had a different way in constitution and stating their political theories. For Machiavellis way of writing consisted of stating the truth of what was going around, the reality and the exact commentary of politics, unlike Dante, who was using imagination in writing his political theories, and for that he was criticized by Machiavelli, where Machiavelli stated that a true political theorist should not be transcendentally based, and his methods, goals, and overall should be based on reality. One of Machiavellis was to unify Italy. He did not accomplish his goal, although he tried to in his writings, specifically in one of his books called The Prince. In this book, Machiavelli tried to call for a hero who could save Italy and unify it. But Italy, back then, was facing problems. Italy had to do a bright decision, whether to unify or to remain in the political structure it was in. If Italy remained in the same political structure then it would suffer from a huge economic and cultural loss, but if Italy decided to unify and become a whole country, then it would become the most important country in the modern world. Machiavelli was sure aware of the situation, and gave Italy his ideas for the unification, but Italy refused it. Later on, Italy regretted not accepting Machiavellis ideas, but by then it was too late, and Italy paid the consequences of being ignorant to a sassy idea that could have changed history. Machiavellis writings were so important and wise during the renaissance. He was the first person who separated politics from ethics, as well as, cognizance from ethics, considering that politics and science are based on facts and reality. Machiavelli always had a way to look for the truth, and this influenced many people, and in fact, looking for the truth is moral that he taught to every person who knew him, not even personally. In conclusion, Machiavelli was considered the best political theorist during the renaissance times, as important as he is today, and his way of writing was way much better than Dantes.